Chapter IV Forest Society And Colonialism

Overview

This chapter examines the relationship between forests, forest-dwelling communities, and colonial powers, particularly focusing on India and Java. It details the causes and consequences of deforestation driven by colonial economic interests, the imposition of new forest management systems ('scientific forestry'), and the impact on local communities. The chapter also explores various forms of resistance against colonial forest policies, exemplified by the Bastar rebellion, and discusses the transformation of forest management practices in the post-colonial era, emphasizing conservation and community involvement.

Why Deforestation?

Deforestation, the clearing of forests, has been occurring for centuries but intensified under colonial rule due to several factors:

• Agricultural Expansion: Driven by population growth and increasing demand for commercial crops (jute, sugar, wheat, cotton) for European markets and industries, colonial governments encouraged the expansion of cultivation, clearing forests to convert land for farming.
• Demand for Timber: The need for timber for shipbuilding (to maintain naval power) and railways created a massive demand. Colonial powers like Britain and the Dutch systematically exploited forest resources in their colonies. The spread of railways required vast quantities of wooden sleepers, leading to widespread tree felling.
• Plantations: Large forest areas were cleared to establish plantations of tea, coffee, and rubber to meet European demand, with colonial governments providing land at cheap rates to European planters.

The Rise Of Commercial Forestry

To manage forests and ensure a steady supply of timber for imperial needs, colonial governments implemented new forest management systems, often termed 'scientific forestry'. This involved:

• Systematic Management: Appointing forest experts (like Dietrich Brandis in India) to create legal frameworks, rules, and working plans for forest management.
• Legal Sanction: Enacting forest acts (e.g., Indian Forest Act, 1865, and later amendments) to regulate forest use, restrict villagers' access, and punish unauthorized felling or grazing.
• Classification of Forests: Dividing forests into categories like 'reserved' (where villagers had no access), 'protected,' and 'village forests,' with the best forests reserved for state commercial use.
• Plantations: Replacing diverse natural forests with monocultures of commercially valuable trees like teak and sal, which were easier to manage for timber production.

This system, while aimed at conservation for commercial purposes, often disregarded the diverse needs of local communities for forest products like fodder, fruits, herbs, and materials for housing and implements.

How Did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

Colonial forest laws significantly impacted traditional practices like shifting cultivation (swidden agriculture). Foresters deemed this practice harmful, fearing it would damage valuable timber reserves and increase fire risks. They banned it, leading to the displacement of many communities who relied on it. This disruption forced people to change occupations or resulted in resistance against colonial rule.

Who Could Hunt?

Forest laws also restricted customary rights, including hunting. While colonial officials and elites engaged in large-scale hunting (often seen as a symbol of power and a means to 'civilize' India by killing 'dangerous' animals), local communities were punished for poaching. This marked a shift from traditional hunting practices to a sport for the powerful, contributing to the endangerment of species.

New Trades, New Employments And New Services

While many lost traditional livelihoods, new opportunities arose in forest trade. Communities began trading forest products like hides, horns, silk cocoons, timber, spices, and gums. Colonial governments granted monopolies to European trading firms. However, this often led to exploitation, with workers in plantations (like rubber extraction in Java and tea plantations in India) facing harsh conditions and low wages, becoming dependent on traders and restricted from returning to their villages.

Rebellion In The Forest

Colonial forest policies led to widespread discontent and numerous rebellions across India and other colonies. The people of Bastar (present-day Chhattisgarh) provide a significant example.

The People Of Bastar

Bastar's diverse communities (Maria, Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, Halbas) shared customs and beliefs, respecting spirits of nature and viewing land as gifted by the Earth. They managed their resources within village boundaries, often with systems of local protection and fees for using resources from neighboring villages.

The Fears Of The People

The colonial government's plan to reserve two-thirds of Bastar's forests in 1905, banning shifting cultivation, hunting, and free collection of forest produce, caused immense worry. Villagers were displaced, denied access to forests, and subjected to increased rents and demands for free labor. Terrible famines in 1899-1900 and 1907-1908 exacerbated their plight. The reservation policy was seen as the final blow.

In 1910, a rebellion began, initiated by the Dhurwas of Kanger forest. Led by figures like Gunda Dhur, messages (mango boughs, earth, chillies, arrows) circulated across villages, inviting people to rebel. Bazaars were looted, government buildings and properties were attacked, and grain was redistributed. The British suppressed the rebellion by sending troops, leading to flogging and arrests. However, they temporarily suspended reservation work and reduced the planned reserved area, a victory for the rebels.

Forest Transformations In Java

Similar to India, Dutch colonial rule in Java also led to significant forest transformations and exploitation.

The Woodcutters Of Java

The Kalangs of Java were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. Their expertise was valued, but the Dutch tried to control them through the 'blandongdiensten' system, which involved imposing rents on forest land or demanding free labor and buffaloes for timber transport. The Kalangs resisted this control, as seen in their 1770 uprising.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

The Dutch implemented forest laws restricting villagers' access, controlling timber use, and requiring permits. This system aimed at managing forests for shipbuilding and railway sleepers, similar to British policies in India. The introduction of 'scientific forestry' led to monoculture plantations and restricted traditional practices.

Samin’s Challenge

Around 1890, Surontiko Samin questioned Dutch state ownership of forests, arguing that the state did not create natural resources. His ideas inspired a movement where people protested by refusing to pay taxes or perform labor, demonstrating resistance to colonial forest control.

War And Deforestation

World Wars I and II significantly impacted forests. In India, forests were exploited for war needs. In Java, the Dutch implemented a 'scorched earth' policy during Japanese occupation, destroying sawmills and timber piles. The Japanese then recklessly exploited the forests for their war industries, forcing local labor.

New Developments In Forestry

Since the 1980s, governments have recognized the conflicts arising from 'scientific forestry' and the exclusion of local communities. Conservation has become a key goal, emphasizing community involvement. Many villages actively protect their forests, demonstrating successful local forest management.

Questions

The questions at the end of the chapter encourage students to analyze the impact of colonial forest policies on various groups, compare colonial forest management in India and Java, and discuss the causes of deforestation, including the role of railways, shipbuilding, plantations, and shifting cultivation. They also ask students to explain why forests are affected by wars and to reflect on the changes in forestry practices and community involvement in conservation efforts.